Three Modes of Learning
Bruner (1966) states that there are three main modes of learning that are experienced by children. These three modes of learning explains how children start to store the information that they get into memories.
The first mode is enactive. Enactive itself derives from the word active. It can be easily guessed then from the word that this mode is related to the way children becomes active. Children have to get to know what they learn by actively getting in touch with the things they are learning. Giving children opportunities to directly have in contact will open up their mind because they know the real ones. It will strengthen their memories related to the things they just already learn.
The second mode is iconic. This is the phase in which the children process the information they already get in their memories. We can say that in this stage the children take their mental notes on what they just learn by seeing it directly. We cannot just let them step to the next phase without giving them some time to understand the things and directly assess them to recall or move on to the next thing to learn. Processing information is important because children need to digest it thoroughly so they could recall the thing when someone else mentions it again next time.
The third one is symbolic. It is the time when children start recalling the information they already have in mind. As someone tells the children a thing/stuff that the children have already had the information about in their mental notes, their memories will help them to strengthen the ‘data’. At this point, the children would be able to give more meaning and action towards something. Further, they would capable of talking about the thing themselves. This advanced process is what helps them to successfully learn because they know what they learn as they could give emphasis by talking about it.
The implementation of those three modes might be depicted as an example follows. When the children come to a class for, let’s say in a kindergarten, they would be exposed to kinds of fruits. If it is not possible to give them the real ones, it will be okay to use realia, so at least they will get a direct, real ‘pictures’ of the things. They must also be given opportunities to touch (the use of sense) and play with. This is the first step in enactive mode. Next, after giving them enough time to get interact with the things, they might be given a simple question to recall what they have done before. The teacher might ask, ”Okay, children, what have just you played with?”. In short, the children will recall the memories of kinds of fruits they just get. The process in recalling is the iconic mode. Since they are given direct access towards the things, they can easily remember the name of the fruit, the shape, and the color. Afterwards, the children come into symbolic mode. They can be given chances to talk more about the fruits so that we know what they just learn.
Three Types of Knowledge Constructed by Children
Piaget (1975) proposes three types of knowledge that children construct when they are learning.
The first type is physical knowledge. Similar with what Bruner said in iconic mode, children should be given chance to physically interact with the things. They are given time to explore the things at the outmost, so they also make use of the senses. This kind of knowledge in which the children having in touch with real things is what we call as physical knowledge.
The second type of knowledge that children make is logico-mathematical knowledge. This kind of knowledge is built by the children through their experience with things by comparing and contrasting one to the other. When children have two objects in front of them, they will be able to tell that they are different or the same because they do comparing. This kind of ability to compare is made by each child in their mind. Later on, when they are already able to compare and say that the objects are different, they will do contrasting. They will be able to determine which one is bigger or smaller, which one is yellow or red (or in other colour), which one is tall or short, etc. At first we might tell them that one is different from another but they will eventually learn by themselves and decide which one has characteristics as previously they had learn.
The third one is social knowledge. This knowledge is acquainted by children after they socially interact with other people. They learn from other people abstract things related to norms, words, terms, and others because somebody tell them so. They can also understand those abstract knowledge after they see someone do something. For example, when a child sees someone who is always with a book and do read, her mother might tell him or her that the person is diligent. Later on, when the child encounters someone in a train bringing a book and read all along the way, he or she could conclude that the person is diligent.
What Can We Learn from Bruner & Piaget
From Bruner and Piaget’s theory of children development, we can conclude that there are three main aspects of what to notice the most when it comes to teaching English to young learners.
Piaget (1896-1980), who introduces ‘stage theory’, mentions that the third stage was concrete-operational stage. This stage insists on having the children be directly in touch with the concrete thing. They have to be given a good understanding first on concrete stuff before they are introduced to the abstract ones. This is the correct sequence of learning that has to be experienced by children.
Giving them a real picture of what they need to learn is a must. This must preceeds before they are taught on abstract thing such as the definition of wise, happiness, loyal, etc. Children need to see the real ones, so that they can input the information into their memories easily and thoroughly. Giving them a description of something without providing the real example, or at least realia, would make children difficult to digest. Later on, they will also get difficulties in recalling because there is no memories of the thing in their mind.
Related to learning materials, it is truly important to give the children materials that are there in their real life. It would make the comprehension of the learning process easier since children are exposed to the things they will see everytime and everywhere. The learning materials that can easily be gained by children give opportunities for them to have frequent contact with the things, and thus it will make the children’s memory stronger since they will recall the things more frequent, too. For example, this will be hard for children who live in tropical areas and have no direct access to snow. When they are given an explanation of snow without getting real example, the process of learning will be a little bit difficult.
Next, the given instruction must be clear and useful. As children learn from what they are doing, when we ask them to do something, we have to say it clearly and briefly. They still cannot decipher a long, complicated sentences so the instruction given must be short but effective. They have to be given a task that makes them interact with other people. This kind of instruction will benefit the children not only intelectually but also socially.
What Does Musthafa (2010) Say on Children and How They Learn
Teaching English to Young Learners is no different with teaching to adults. It is even much more difficult since the teacher has to know to whom they teach, which are children, and it is important to know the children's characteristics in learning. Musthafa (2010) lists five main points of how children learn.
The first thing is children learn from direct experiences. Teachers have to facilitate the children activities that make sense to children mental memories. The activities have to related to children's in daily life activities. It would not be in use if children are given activities that are far from what children might experience in real life. Take for example a child who is born and grow up in Indonesia is given an instruction to do an ice skating. No memories and facility that are owned by the children make a somehow impossible learning.
Secondly is children learn from hands-on physical activities. Giving children direct access to 'interact' with the objects is such an important issue. Their physical interaction will make a great memory as it directly connects to their senses. Therefore, teachers should prepare an activity that make the children being involved with the task. As an example, children can be given a project to make a simple greeting cards. They are allowed to do any creativity in writing the text. This kind of project will make more sense for them in learning and their involvement to the activity will last more memory in case they use it for future recall.
When teachers give children a task, they better make an activity that is related to here-and-now context of situation. Despite making an instruction that only involves imagination, teacher might make use of the objects near them as a tool in learning. When we introduce them to an object, for example, try to avoid using an abstract description or just ask them to imagine. It would be okay to give a picture as a tool to learn, but it would be much better if the objects are there in sight of the children. So teachers might point out the objects in class such as the table, cupboard, chair, window, and also the color and shape of the objects so that children know and learn directly.
Children also learn things from whole to parts by making scripts. They first notice the whole things and store the information in their mental notes. However, when they later find out that there is an adjustment to the information they already have, they will make their own changes and separate their 'whole' information into 'parts'. They can only do this by directly experience the information. Take for example, children first might learn that all creatures in the water use gills as their breathing systems. This is because they know only that the creatures are all fish. However, when they are older as they learn, they will adjust their knowledge that not all creatures in the water are all fish and use gills. This change their 'whole' script into 'parts'.
Lastly, as all of teachers really have to know is that children have limited span of attention. Harmer (2007) mentions that young learners can only give full attention in the range of 10 minutes. This becomes a great task for the teachers then to construct a series of activities that suit the children's span. They might prepare different activities in every 10 minutes or give the children ice breaking activity so that the children will not get bored doing the same task for a very long time.
References
Cameron, L. 2001. Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cousins, L. P. 2005. The “Real” Magic of Logico-Mathematical Knowledge. Retrieved from https://blogs.psychcentral.com/always-learning/2010/01/the-real-magic-of-logico-mathematical-knowledge/
Harmer, J. 2007. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Cambridge: Longman ELT.
McLeod, S. 2008. Bruner. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org.
Musthafa, B. 2010. Teaching English to Young Learners in Indonesia: Essential Requirements. Educationist Vol IV No. 2.
Yoko, M., Kamii, C., Mariko, N. Journal of Research in Childhood Education. Retrieved from http://www.freepatentsonline.com/article/Journal-Research-in-Childhood-Education/135077620.html